The MMC sponsored a literature review by Samuels et al. (2000) to compile information regarding human interactions with marine mammals in the wild. Upon review of the report, the MMC stated: "The information and analyses in the report provide compelling evidence that any efforts to interact intentionally with dolphins in the wild are likely to result in at least Level B harassment and, in some cases, could result in the death or injury of both people and marine mammals.''

The MMC therefore recommended to NMFS that it ``promulgate regulations specifying that any activity intended to enable in-water interactions between humans and dolphins in the wild constitutes a taking and is prohibited'' (Letter from MMC to NMFS dated May 23, 2000).

NOAA infers that swimming with the spinners may habituate them in the long term. We propose that nearshore spinners in Hawaii are habituated, in the classic sense of the word. Samuels (et al 2000) classifies Hawaiian spinner dolphins as non-habituated, we disagree with this.
 
a. Habituation is defined (Samuels et al 2000) as “groups of cetaceans in which many individuals have sustained interactions with human swimmers on a regular basis without pursuit by humans or the incentive of food provisioning.” In the 10 years of observing the resident pod of spinner dolphins on our coast, I’d say this is an apt description of them, excepting for the last few years - where pursuit has intensified (then are the dolphins becoming "non-habituated"?).  Habituation is further defined (Samuels, Bejder 1999) as on the presence or absence of certain behaviors. The cited behaviors which hold true for the spinners on our coast would include - remaining within touching distance of a human or vessel in the water (although they are not touched), and rapid travel (not bow riding) to keep up with a vessel moving at speed. Additionally, they initiate approaches (Samuel et al 2000) towards both swimmers and boats. 

b.  “Not habituated” is clarified  (Samuels et al 2000) in one way as individual dolphins not having sustained interaction with humans. This label is discounted for the Hawaiian population of spinners even though it is recognized that (perhaps many) anecdotal reports exist.

c. Frohoff (2000) defines habituation as a “waning of response to a repeated or ongoing stimulation that is associated with neither a positive or negative reward resulting in the stimulus as having a lack of significance to the animal.” <italics mine>,
 
Frohoff (2000) later states that a function of habituation “may be negative physiological effects (i.e. stress).” How can stress result from habituation if there is no negative reward (punishment) and the stimulation results in lack of significance? She also suggests that habituation may lead to a lack of appropriate responses to the dangers that the stimuli present.

There have been no reported cases of physically aggressive spinner dolphin behavior towards humans in Hawaii. Neither have non-fatal, non-intentional, or intentional acts of physical aggression (i.e. objects thrown at dolphins) nor non-fatal, non-intentional impacts from fishing gear, anchors, propellers been documented or reported in the context of sociable spinner interactions with humans in Hawaii. Although entanglement in fishing line and bullet holes are evident from other sources.

d. The closest situation we see to the spinner-human interaction (in our area anyhow) is the interaction found on the Little Banks of the Bahamas.  There, dolphins first approached humans, similar to Hawaii.  On the Leeward Coast of Oahu, the resident spinner dolphin pod encountered and approached coastal recreational and subsistence users  many years before people intentionally and increasingly began seeking encounters with them. These would include spearfishers, boaters, kayakers, canoe paddlers, surfers, divers, swimmers and net layers, etc.  It seems likely that habituation of the spinners was an initially more rapid process, through repeated and increasing exposures, than the spotted dolphins on the isolated Little Banks of the Bahamas.

e. The two types of (labeled as habituated) spotted dolphin-human encounters Herzig (1999) reports are 1) Interactive – when dolphins are mutually curious and engage in interaction with humans, and 2) Observational - when dolphins engage in their own behavior; are indentical to the Hawaiian spinner dolphins actions in daytime habitats.

Ken Norris in “Dolphin Days, Life and Times of the Spinner Dolphins” (1991) claims that “there are in fact solid indications that one can make friends with wild dolphins.” His first informant concerning the Kealakeakua spinners told Norris (1991) in the 1960’s that the dolphins clustered around him as he swam over the sandy area. During the period of his extensive research on the spinner dolphins Norris writes of students who performed underwater behavioral research with the Lanai, Kealakeakua and other Hawaiian spinner pods. He details the accounts of Jody Solow who in the works of her master thesis, frequently had pods of 20 – 60 spinners approach her “sometimes only a body’s length away” and becoming part of their playgroups (Type 1).  She did not have as much luck with the Kealakeakua pod, of whom she only spent a brief period of time with. Norris felt that this pod (in the 1980’s) were already habituated to swimmer presence and hence ignoring her (Type 2). He concludes the chapter saying the spinners are “clearly uncommonly welcoming wild animals.”

f. Samuels  (et al 2000) describes “not habituated” dolphins as those having infrequent contact with humans or which show disturbance reactions. The "habituated" spotted dolphins in the Bahamas have shown negative reactions to vessel approaches (Ransom 1998), and one spotted calf was found to have life threatening wounds, presumably from a boat propeller. All opportunities to swim with these dolphins are conducted by boats.  Ransom (1998) also reported an instance of aggression towards a swimmer who came between a mother and calf.  The visited area that the spotted dolphins frequent could also be termed “critical habitat.” Hawaiian spinners are rarely seen feeding in their daytime habitat (being nocturnal feeders), as the spotteds regularly do.

g. Samuels (2000) communicates that the “habituated” dolphins in the Florida Keys took time to trust the operators. One operator in particular is cited to have taken over six months to habituate specific dolphins. This suggests in itself that avoidance (or aggressive) behavior (disturbance) took place while “trust was gained.”

h. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Ecology defines habituation as “A decrease in behavioral responsiveness which occurs when a stimulus if repeated frequently with neither reward or punishment. The process involves learning to ignore insignificant stimuli and should not be confused with accommodation.”  By this definition, the spotted dolphins would not be habituated as their response to humans is lengthening (Samuels et al 2000).  It may also be found that the Florida Key Dolphins have also lengthened their time with humans, as that time was nil before trust was established. However Norris (1991) noted that (20 years ago) the more visited Kealakeakua spinner pod spent less time with swimmers. Courbis (2004) "found that spinner dolphins exhibited decreased aerial activity during their entry and exit into Kealakekua Bay when compared to previous studies, as well as increased aerial activity during mid-day when dolphins typically rest."

i. Samuels (et al 2000) review of 151 sources pertaining to swimming with wild cetaceans, sirenians and sharks did not include one of Norris’s publications, even though he is recognized as perhaps the most respected of odontocete researchers.  It is noted in the Recommendations section (Samuels et al 2000)  that spinner research results are "preliminary" but sufficient to indicate disturbance, and clearly constituting harassment.

Samuels (et al 2000) above recommendation cites the Forest (1999) study, where it is noted that the findings showing disturbance may be erroneous; another study on “The presence of spinner dolphins affects human use and sex ratios of swimmers in Kealakeakua Bay” which is referenced in no other context then it is a preliminary study on responses of spinners to humans (even though the title implies the reverse); Green and Calvez (1999) who find spinners are interactive with humans during the morning hours, and less so as the day progresses (descending into rest) (Herzig’s Type 1 and 2 encounters?); and Psarakos and Marten (1999) reporting their research goals and methods, but no findings as data were not analyzed. This clearly constitutes harassment?

j. We suggest that since the Little Banks programs likewise show documented disturbance, in at least some cases to the spotted dolphins, and suggested disturbance to the Florida Keys dolphins, the “not habituated” definition adversely singles out the spinner dolphins of Hawaii. We also find it quite ironic that although are no reports of injury to swimmers or spinners in Hawaii (and no intentional “training period”), interaction is clearly “harassment” (Samuels et al 2000) while the recommendation for provisioned bottlenose in Florida (where both dolphins and swimmers are injured) to be only “enforcement of the no-feeding ban.” We suggest that the coastal resident pods of spinner dolphins should at least be listed as Category 3  (Samuels et al 2000),“habituated” dolphins.  

k. We further suggest that scrutiny of this report  (Samuels et al 2000) may find it faulty and lacking in compelling evidence (in at least the case of the Hawaiian spinner dolphins) to be used as a basis for proposed changes in rulemaking. However, we are not saying that further science-based management is not warranted.

NMFS requests comments on what type of regulations and other measures would be appropriate to prevent harassment of marine mammals in the wild caused by human activities directed at the animals.

1. Appropriate measures require recognition of the habitat needs of the spinner dolphins. Few studies have been conducted specifically on the impact of human-dolphin interaction in Hawaii. Fewer still on the human-dolphin interaction on the Waianae Coast, with none published. What studies have been done here (Psarakos and Marten, 1999) have yet to be analyzed. Frohoff (2000) found in her literature review on odontocete stress during human-dolphin interactions that management appeared to be most effective when it was science-based, species and site specific, and implemented early in the development of the interaction. This is still possible and desirable on the Waianae Coast of Oahu.

The spinner dolphins in Hawaii are one very few odontocete populations that do have pre-“impact” baseline data. Bernd Wursig (1999), involved and well recognized in spinner studies in Hawaii since 1979, states that even though some aspects of human behavior can disturb spinner dolphins, especially during rest, dolphins are amazingly behaviorally flexible in the face of many aspects of human intrusion. Wursig (1996) also noted that in a situation (in the Bahamas) solely similar to Hawaii’s human-dolphin interaction stricter regulations would be needed  “only when the number of vessels and attendant underwater activity and noise increased, no longer allowing the animals to easily and comfortably ‘escape.’”

Driscoll-Lind and Ostman-Lind (1999) found during the course of their studies on behavior and movement patterns (off Lanai) that dolphins were clearly disturbed by the presence of people (or even one person) following them, in at least some cases.  They also say that spinners continue to return to their daytime habitats even when repeatedly disturbed by boats, swimmers, or kayakers. Their studies appear to focus on the time when the dolphins are resting and do show higher susceptibility to disturbance.

We suggest that vessels be limited in number and there be no vessel visitation to the resting ground during documented resting periods, 11am to 1pm (Norris et al., 1994), or as Green and Calvez (1999) report mid-morning and afternoon hours. We would also suggest no swimmers from shore, but this may be complicated by public rights to beach access.

2. The industry here may be self-regulating in itself. For one, operators can watchdog each other. Moreover, if swimmers act in a way that can be determined to be pursuit, annoyance, or tormenting, or adversely changing the behavior of a spinner dolphin, the dolphin will move away. Spinners can effortlessly out swim a human, though they shouldn’t have to. If swimmers are aware that they must “blend in” to the habitat, they tend to act responsibly. Swimmers from a tour can be more easily educated and monitored than swimmers from shore who may be acting opportunistically, with no knowledge of spinner behavior. 

3. Education can be a very powerful tool as learning about a particular animal is often the first step towards becoming active in its conservation. As noted dolphin researcher Ken Norris states, "Our knowledge of these dolphins is their protection. You cannot kill what you come to love." The ancient Hawaiians recognized the special quality of dolphins and designated them as a form of Kanaloa, or "god of the sea," in the Kumulipo, the Hawaiian chant of creation.

4. The spinners daytime habitats on this coast are in fairly remote areas. Enforcement of a no-swimming law would be difficult for swimmers from shore, and visitors to the island here infrequently may not know of prior fines (setting an example). There is a beach on the Oahu where green sea turtles regularly haul out on the sand. There are clearly visible posted signs that they are endangered and cannot be touched, fed, harassed etc. People (usually visitors) interact with these turtles on a daily basis, many are brought by tour companies and buses.

There is also a very visible sign at one of the spinner daytime habitats here warning of fines for illegal interaction. Visitors quite regularly swim out from this potentially hazardous beach for dolphin interactions, regardless of swimming ability, knowledge of the waters or knowledge of the spinners behavior.  Hotels have been known to give their guests maps to this beach, with no other instructions about dolphin behavior, water safety, etc.

We suggest that marine mammal tour operators who are observing the animals on a consistent and regular basis and keeping detailed logs would be in a good position to recognize changes to the resource. Sensitive operators being the daily eyes and ears on the water can serve as a bridge between less sensitive (economically based) operators, human-induced degradation of the habitat and conservation efforts. Knowledge gained from the daily observation of dolphin communities may serve to establish clear inferences as to how humans should behave toward these communities and their component organisms. They are in an excellent position to educate the public and be ambassadors to the mammals and their habitat. Making operators ambassadors gives passengers a feeling of contributing to the welfare of these animals. As a whole, they can “patrol” the coasts, educate other visitors and document violations if warranted, lessening enforcement burdens on NOAA’s part (to be out on the water).

5. Economically (and in a perfect world), operators posses vested interest in the conservation of the resource they are exploiting. Certification programs for tour operators would guarantee that they are aware of regulations, and mammal behaviors appropriate to their areas. Certification programs can either be paid for by the captains attending or come from a fund. This fund could be supported by a (perhaps $1) per passenger surcharge (whale watching activities have grown into a billion dollar ($US) industry, Hoyt 2001). Funding could also support ongoing research to determine resource health and carrying capacities.

6.  Likewise the whole goal of interaction with spinners in Hawaii is not to change their behavior. Being smaller herd-like animals, if something should trigger the fight-or-flight reflex, they invariably flee.  As Green (1999) notes during resting periods, the dolphins either moved away from or swam around the perimeter of the humans. However she does not say they left the resting grounds, as they would if threatened by a shark. Forest (1999) also finds little significant difference in aerial behaviors of the spinners around swimmers in the morning, besides the dolphins appear calmer. If the conclusion can be made that increased aerial behaviors due to human activities is disruptive to energy levels, then swimmers reducing aerial activities can be said to be beneficial. As Wursig (1996) noted that in a situation (in the Bahamas) stricter regulations are needed  “only when the number of vessels and attendant underwater activity and noise increased, no longer allowing the animals to easily and comfortably ‘escape.’”

7. Operators (or incidences) do exist that are not using discretion, are making purely economically based decisions, and/or act responsibly only when the coast guard helicopter is overhead. The best recourse we see is to empower the community, or other operators, to become watchdogs/ambassadors. Education programs can be sponsored by the above fund (#6), and/or also by a “We Tip” program, where harassment is reported to the proper agency and the “tipper” is rewarded a certain amount upon prosecution of offender. 

“A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise." Aldo Leopold

"We must live for something besides making a living. If we do not permit the earth to produce beauty and joy, it will in the end not produce food either... Unless somebody teaches love, there can be no ultimate protection to what is lusted after.”
Joseph Wood Krutch

8.  The problem here, on the West Coast of Oahu appears to be related to the number of marine mammal tours operators and opportunistic swimmers from the beach (the more swimmers the larger the chance for aggressive or unaware swimmers to be present). Too much of either can be a safety issue as well potential Level B harassment.  Disturbance by the number of boats is recognized in Forest (1999) study, causing increased energy expenditure. The frequency of aerial activities by the spinners in their resting grounds increased with the number of boats observes following within 10m of the dolphin pod or driving through them.

We have lobbied on the state level in the past to have moratorium put on the number of tour operators, until studies could be conducted to determine the carrying capacity (in relation to human visitation) of the spinners daytime habitat. We were unsuccessful, although putting a cap on visitation appears to be the best preventative measure. The privately owned Ko Olina harbor is the biggest threat right now. Being privately-owned, operators do not need a state commercial permit, and any number of operators can now depart from this prime location (the nearby state harbor has a limited number of permits, thereby limiting operators). The waters have the potential to become quite choked with operators and neither outlawing dolphin swims nor instituting a 50 yard approach law will help the imminent conditions in their resting grounds, or paths of travel.


NMFS Regional Wildlife Viewing Guidelines for Marine Mammals are available on line at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/MMWatch/MMViewing.html

1. NOAA’s guidelines are based on terrestrial animals.  A regular question I asked visitors on board is if they've ever encountered a wild animal that approached them as a dolphin did (without being provisioned). The only similarity in a terrestrial animal that I've heard of is a deer. I’ve been told that a deer will curiously approach if you are very still, blending into the environment (similar to desired behavior around the spinners).  What other wild animals approach moving vessels? Almost every oceanic movie will show dolphins riding on the bow of a boat. Dolphins will approach vessels and “ride the bow” without a pressure wave, or enough of one, to make it a “free ride.” They “ride the bow” zigzagging in front of slow moving kayaks and swimmers alike.  While the basis of the terrestrial guidelines are sound, dolphins are a different ball game.  As Norris  (1991) states, dolphins are “clearly uncommonly welcoming wild animals.”

“He [Dolphins] also exhibits a friendly willingness to cooperate with other earth creatures -- a rare attribute which another animal, Homo Sapiens, has not yet learned to do with any consistency". Barbara Tufty

2. A substantial concern is that when operators approach the spinners for a swim, it is desirable for the spinners to be as low key possible. Vessel approach and in-water behavior mirrors this. If tours are strictly boat-based, operators are going to want to "give" their clients spinner aerial action and increase speed. Likewise, for the 50 yard approach law. If vessels approach up slowly, spinner behavior is unlikely to change. If you pass by them at even 50 yards away at an optimal "dolphin ride" clip, at least a few dolphins are very likely to approach the boat for a bow-ride or produce some aerial activities. Dolphins, on the whole are much more curious and responsive then whales, for whom the 100 yard approach law may serve to lessen disturbance.

3. Specific guidelines for the resting grounds, should include, no-wake zones, limiting the number of operators and time allowed, a "rest (no- tour vessel) period" coinciding with the fairly well-documented 11:00 to 1:00 "sleep" pattern.

4. On the island of Oahu, Hawaii, it would appear that current MMPA regulations (“any act of pursuit, torment, or annoyance which . . . has the potential to disturb a marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild . . . or, the negligent or intentional operation of an aircraft or vessel, or the doing of any other negligent or intentional act which results in disturbing or molesting a marine mammal”) are adequate, if recognized and enforced.

Courbis (2004) reported high levels of vessel and swimmer traffic in Kealakekua Bay and neighboring Honaunau Bay and Kauhako Bay, and found that spinner dolphins exhibited decreased aerial activity during their entry and exit into Kealakekua Bay when compared to previous studies, as well as increased aerial activity during mid-day when dolphins typically rest. Spinner dolphins in Kealakekua Bay also appeared to have shifted their preferred resting area in response to vessel and swimmer presence. In Kauhako Bay, dolphins were documented avoiding swimmers and leaving the bay in response to being followed, while in Honaunau Bay, dolphins were documented to spend more time at the mouth of the bay or in deep water at the center of the bay when swimmers were present.

"There were no statistically significant correlations between the mean number of any particular category of aerial behaviors per hour or the overall mean number of aerial behaviors per hour and the mean intensity of vessels/swimmers per hour or the mean intensity of vessels/swimmers per hour within 50m of the pod in any of the bay." Courbis 2004

" Because the sample size for this study was so small, I do not think it is appropriate to try to find a polynomial that describes the relationship." Courbis 2004

"A third possibility is that there are motivations for aerial behavior aside from vessel/swimmer approach (Norris et al, 1994), and aerial behaviors brought on by these alternative motivations confound the data. I think this is likely the situation." Courbis 2004

Despite Courbis' own testimony to the statistical deficiencies of her study, I have also found it notable that the spinners on the Waianae coastline are spending less time in a deep rest mode. This could be due to the increase in both the amount of dolphin tour vessels and their swimmers, and the number of trips per day. As of this writing there can be daytime tour boat visitation up to 4 pm in the afternoon, and then sunset tours begin.

While Courbis found no difference from past studies in the dolphins' occurrence in her studied resting grounds, there is anecdotal evidence that this is occurring. From our unpublished data, in recent years spinner dolphins are found less often at Makua and more frequently at Kahe Point. The irony is that Kahe Point has more tour vessel traffic than Makua.

Ostman-Lind et al. (2004) found that human disturbance was highest in mid-morning when spinner dolphins begin their rest period, and that secondary resting areas with less vessel traffic were utilized more than had been previously observed.

While Courbis (2004) found no difference from past studies in the dolphins' occurrence in her studied resting grounds, there is anecdotal evidence that this is occurring. From our unpublished data, in recent years spinner dolphins are found less often at Makua and more frequently at Kahe Point. The irony is that Kahe Point has more tour vessel traffic than Makua. This has also been found true in the shift from dolphin use of Keahole Bay to the Kailua- Kona bay.

The table below (Ostman-Lind et al. 2004) represents the field effort that was the basis for bolded comment above. Twenty-two days on the water, spread over 6 months, appears too small of a sample size to determine anything besides identification of individuals and the species found (while not ruling out species not found).

Table 2. Field effort (number of days) by month. One survey day conducted in March, was divided between inshore and offshore waters. Ostman-Lind et al. (2004)

Ross (2001) found that Hawaiian spinner dolphins around Midway Atoll in the Northwest Hawaiian
Islands exhibited short-term behavioral changes in response to vessels at distances of 300 meters and 100 meters.

The resident spinner pod at Midway is culturally different than the resident spinner pods found on the Main Hawaiian Islands.

References

Courbis, S.S. 2004. Behavior of Hawaiian spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) in response to vessels/swimmers. Masters Thesis, San Francisco State University. 209 pp.

Driscoll-Lind, A., Ostman-Lind, J. 1999.  Concerns about the Hawaiian Spinner Dolphins in Hawaii. In: Dudzinski, K.M., T.G. Frohoff and T.R. Spradlin, 1999, Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop Proceedings, 13th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, The Society of Marine Mammalogy, Maui, Hawaii, 28 November 1999. 70 pp


Dudzinski, K.M., T.G. Frohoff and T.R. Spradlin, (Eds.) 1999. Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop Proceedings, 13th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, The Society of Marine Mammalogy, Maui, Hawaii, 28 November 1999. 70 pp


Forest, A. 1999: The Hawaiian Spinner Dolphin, Stenlla longisrostris: Effects of Tourism. Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop, Maui, Hawaii. In: Dudzinski, K.M., T.G. Frohoff and T.R. Spradlin, 1999, Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop Proceedings, 13th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, The Society of Marine Mammalogy, Maui, Hawaii, 28 November 1999. 70 pp

Frohoff, T.G.  2000 Behavioral Indicators of Stress in Odontocetes During Interaction with Humans: A Preliminary Review and Discussion.  International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee, S/C52/WW2

Green and Calvez 1999 Research on Hawaiian Spinner Dolphins in Kealakeakua Bay, Hawaii In: Dudzinski, K.M., T.G. Frohoff and T.R. Spradlin, 1999, Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop Proceedings, 13th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, The Society of Marine Mammalogy, Maui, Hawaii, 28 November 1999. 70 pp

Hoyt, E. 2001. Whale watching 2001: Worldwide Tourism Numbers, Expenditures, and Expanding Socioeconomic Benefits. International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth Port, MA, USA. 158 pp.

Norris, K., Wursig, B. Wells, R., Wursig, M. (with Brownlee, S., Johnson C., Solow J.)1994. The Hawaiian Spinner Dolphin. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA

Norris, K. 1991 Dolphin Days; the life and times of the Hawaiian spinner dolphin. W.W. Norton and Company, New York, New York.  335 pp

Ostman-Lind, J., A. Driscoll-Lind and S.H. Rickards. 2004. Delphinidae abundance, distribution and habitat use off the western coast of the Island of Hawaii. NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center Administrative Report LJ-04-02C. 28 pp.

Ross, G. 2001. Response of Hawaiian spinner dolphins, Stenella longirostris, to boat presence in Midway Atoll. Masters Thesis, San Francisco State University. 74 pp.

Psarakos, S., Marten, K. 1999 A Study of the Spinner Dolphins Around Oahu. In: Dudzinski, K.M., T.G. Frohoff and T.R. Spradlin, 1999, Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop Proceedings, 13th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, The Society of Marine Mammalogy, Maui, Hawaii, 28 November 1999. 70 pp

Ransom, A.B. 1998. Vessel and Human Impact Monitoring of the Dolphins of Little Bahamas Bank. Masters thesis. San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California. Pages 108

Samuels, A. Bedjer, L, 1999: A Pilot Study of Habitual Interaction Between Humans and Wild Bottlenose Dolphins Near Panama City Beach, Florida. Editors: Dudzinski, K.M., T.G. Forhoff and T.R. Spradlin, 1999, Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop Proceedings, 13th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, The Society of Marine Mammalogy, Maui, Hawaii, 28 November 1999. 70 pp

Samuels, A. Bedjer, L, Heinrich S, 2000: A Review of the Literature Pertaining to Swimming with Wild Dolphins. Prepared for the Marine Mammal Commission, Contract Number T74463123

Whittow, G. 1977. The Hawaiian spinner. Sea Frontiers. 23(5):304-307.

Wursig, B. (1999), Incomplete History of Spinner Dolphin Research in Hawaii. In: Dudzinski, K.M., T.G. Frohoff and T.R. Spradlin, 1999, Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop Proceedings, 13th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, The Society of Marine Mammalogy, Maui, Hawaii, 28 November 1999. 70 pp